The next time you light a candle, you're participating in a ritual that has been practiced for over 5,000 years. What began as a practical necessity for illumination has evolved into a $3.5 billion global industry driven largely by fragrance, ambience, and self-care. The journey from ancient rushlights to modern soy candles is a fascinating story of innovation, chemistry, and changing cultural values.
The Ancient Origins
The earliest candle-like objects weren't candles at all in the modern sense. Ancient civilisations created light sources by dipping rushes, reeds, or papyrus in rendered animal fat (tallow) or plant waxes. These primitive "rushlights" produced smoky, smelly light but served their purpose for indoor illumination.
The Egyptians and Romans
The ancient Egyptians are often credited with developing the first true wicked candles around 3000 BCE, using beeswax collected from wild bee colonies. The Romans advanced candle technology significantly, dipping rolled papyrus in melted tallow or beeswax to create more reliable light sources. These candles were essential for evening activities, religious ceremonies, and travel.
East Asian Innovations
Meanwhile, in Asia, different candle traditions emerged. The Chinese made candles from whale fat during the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE), while Japanese candles were crafted from wax extracted from tree nuts. In India, candles were created from boiling cinnamon tree fruit, producing fragrant light sources centuries before the modern scented candle industry.
The word "candle" comes from the Latin "candela," meaning "to shine" or "to make bright." The Roman candela was a tallow candle used for illumination and religious purposes.
The Middle Ages: Beeswax and Tallow
For most of medieval Europe, candles fell into two distinct categories that reflected the social hierarchy of the time.
Tallow Candles for the Masses
Common people used tallow candles, made from rendered beef or mutton fat. These were affordable but problematic—they produced acrid smoke, unpleasant smells, and dripped constantly. Chandlers (candlemakers) who worked with tallow were often forced to operate on the outskirts of towns due to the smell of their trade.
Beeswax for the Elite
Beeswax candles burned cleanly and emitted a pleasant honey scent, but their expense meant they were reserved for churches, royalty, and the wealthy. The Catholic Church mandated beeswax candles for religious ceremonies, creating enormous demand that influenced bee-keeping practices across Europe.
The Colonial Era: Spermaceti and Bayberry
American colonists made important contributions to candle evolution. They discovered that boiling the berries of bayberry bushes produced a sweet-smelling wax that burned cleanly. However, the labour-intensive harvesting process limited production.
The Whale Oil Revolution
The late 18th century saw the rise of spermaceti candles, made from crystallised sperm whale oil. These candles were a revelation—they burned brighter and cleaner than any previous candle, with no smell and minimal dripping. Spermaceti became the standard by which candle quality was measured, and the "candela" unit of luminous intensity was originally based on spermaceti candle output.
The Candela Standard
The modern candela, the SI unit of luminous intensity, was historically defined as the light output of a pure spermaceti candle burning at a rate of 7.78 grams per hour. Today's definition uses different physics but maintains the name.
The Industrial Revolution: Paraffin Changes Everything
The 19th century brought revolutionary changes to candle-making that would shape the industry for the next 150 years.
Key Inventions
- 1820s: French chemist Michel Eugène Chevreul isolated stearic acid, creating harder, longer-burning candles
- 1834: Joseph Morgan invented the first continuous candle-making machine, enabling mass production
- 1850s: James Young refined paraffin wax from coal and later petroleum, creating a clean-burning, affordable wax
- 1857: The braided wick was developed, which curled as it burned to self-trim
Paraffin Takes Over
Paraffin wax transformed the candle industry. Made from petroleum refining byproducts, it was abundant, inexpensive, and produced excellent candles. By the late 1800s, paraffin had largely replaced tallow and beeswax for everyday candles, making quality illumination accessible to everyone.
The Electric Threat
Just as paraffin reached peak popularity, Thomas Edison's practical incandescent light bulb (1879) threatened to make candles obsolete. By the early 20th century, electric lighting had replaced candles for practical illumination in developed nations.
Yet candles didn't disappear. Instead, they transformed from necessities into luxuries—items valued for ambience, fragrance, and ritual rather than light output. This shift laid the groundwork for the modern candle industry.
The Modern Era: Scent, Sustainability, and Self-Care
The late 20th century saw candles reinvented as lifestyle products. Several factors drove this transformation:
The Scented Candle Boom
While scented candles existed earlier, the 1990s saw an explosion in variety and quality. Improved fragrance oils, better wax formulations, and clever marketing positioned candles as essential home decor and self-care items.
Soy Wax Enters the Scene
In 1991, Michael Richards developed soy wax as a natural alternative to paraffin. The timing was perfect—growing environmental awareness and interest in "natural" products made soy candles increasingly popular through the 2000s and 2010s.
Artisan and Luxury Segments
Today's candle market includes everything from mass-produced basics to hand-poured artisan creations costing hundreds of dollars. Luxury candle brands have become status symbols and design objects in their own right.
The Science of How Candles Work
Understanding the science behind candles helps explain why proper care matters so much.
The Combustion Process
Candles work through a process called capillary action combined with combustion:
- Heat from the flame melts the wax near the wick
- Liquid wax is drawn up the wick via capillary action
- Heat vaporises the liquid wax near the flame
- Wax vapour combines with oxygen and combusts
- The reaction produces heat, light, water vapour, and carbon dioxide
A candle flame has distinct zones. The innermost blue zone (about 1,400°C) is where vaporised wax mixes with oxygen. The bright yellow zone (about 1,000°C) contains glowing carbon particles—the source of the visible light. The outer zone is where combustion completes.
Why Wax Type Matters
Different waxes have different melting points, which affects how candles burn:
- Paraffin: 46-68°C melting point, excellent scent throw
- Soy: 49-52°C melting point, lower and slower burning
- Beeswax: 62-65°C melting point, highest and longest burning
- Coconut: 24°C melting point, very soft, usually blended
The Role of the Wick
The wick is engineered to match the wax and container. Key wick properties include:
- Braid construction: Determines fuel flow and flame size
- Core material: Paper, cotton, or zinc affects rigidity
- Size: Must be calibrated to the candle diameter
- Treatment: Some wicks are treated for better curling
Fragrance Science
Scented candles work by volatilising fragrance oils through heat. The "throw" of a candle depends on:
- Fragrance load: Percentage of oil in the wax (typically 6-12%)
- Wax type: Some hold and release fragrance better
- Burn pool size: Larger pools release more scent
- Room conditions: Temperature and air flow affect perception
The Future of Candles
The candle industry continues to evolve. Current trends include:
- Sustainable materials: Renewable waxes and recyclable packaging
- Clean formulations: Phthalate-free, non-toxic ingredients
- Smart candles: Bluetooth speakers and mood lighting integration
- Personalisation: Custom scent blending and engraving
- Wellness focus: Aromatherapy and self-care positioning
From ancient tallow rushlights to today's luxury soy candles, the history of candle-making reflects broader human stories about innovation, social class, industrialisation, and changing values. The humble candle has survived electric light, world wars, and countless technological disruptions to remain a beloved presence in homes worldwide.
Understanding this history enriches every moment we spend in candlelight. For practical guidance on getting the most from modern candles, explore our complete care guide.